Ocean Acidification

Anthropogenic release of CO₂ is currently resulting in acidification of our oceans at a rate higher than in the past 300 million years. Fish have long been assumed to be resilient to elevated CO₂ due to their strong acid-base regulation. Indeed fish protect blood pH effectively by elevating plasma HCO₃^-, a response seen in toadfish at levels starting between 750 and 1000 μAtm CO₂ (Esbaugh et al 2012). However, the elevated plasma HCO₃^- levels needed to compensate blood pH during CO₂ exposure causes downstream effects that may be detrimental to fish (Heuer & Grosell 2014). Elevated plasma HCO₃^- along with elevated intracellular HCO₃^- concentrations in the brain results in altered ion gradients across neuronal cell membranes and thereby altered function of the GABAA receptor (Heuer et al 2016b) (Fig 2). The GABAA receptor is the main inhibitory receptor in the vertebrate central nervous system and altered function of this receptor is hypothesized to be responsible for pronounced behavioral disturbances observed in a number of fish and invertebrate species (Heuer & Grosell 2014). 

Elevated plasma HCO₃^- during compensation for CO₂ exposure alters intestinal ion transport. Plasma HCO₃^- is a source for intestinal secretion of HCO₃^- into the intestinal lumen and enters the cell from the blood via a Na⁺: HCO₃^- co-transporter, NBC1 (Taylor et al 2010). Elevated plasma HCO₃^- during CO₂ exposure results in increased cellular uptake of HCO₃^- and Na⁺ from the blood via NBC1 and leads to increased intestinal HCO₃^- secretion (Heuer et al 2012; Heuer & Grosell 2016). The excess Na⁺ uptake via NBC1 place a greater demand on the intestinal epithelial cells to eliminate excess Na⁺ via the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, an energy demanding process. Intestinal energy demand is increased during CO₂ exposure, likely due to the increased demand for Na⁺ extrusion (Fig 3). The observed increase of intestinal energy demand may explain reports of delayed digestion observed in CO₂ exposed fish (Heuer & Grosell 2016).

Last, but not least, the elevated plasma HCO₃^- and resulting increase in intestinal secretion of HCO₃^- may result in increased formation and release of CaCO₃ precipitates (Heuer et al 2016a).